Vol. XII. No. 5. May 15, 1915 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BULLETIN GENERAL REVIEWS AND SUMMARIES | HEARING BY ROBERT MORRIS OGDEN University of Kansas : Von Liebermann and Révész (6) appear to have demonstrated the possibility of a tonal mixture analogous to color mixture in the pathological case of v. L. His chronic paracusis occasions the hearing of a tone of constant vibration frequency differently in his two ears. The resultant impression is a mean tone which corre- ti sponds to the arithmetic average of the two apparent tones. To re determine the mean tone objectively it was compared with a lower r tone lying within the range of v.L.’s normal hearing. In this way i the corresponding vibration frequencies of the right and left ear if tones, and of the mean or mixed tone, were determined. The mixed tone always appeared between the right and left ear tones, and could be varied at will between these limits by a corresponding variation in intensity of the stimulus as conducted to the two ears. For normal hearing the phenomenon is apparent only as an increase in intensity when a single tone is conducted to both ears rather than to one. For tones of different pitch separately conducted this is not the case. The authors are led to assume corresponding points for like tones in the two ears, similar to the corresponding points of the retine. This indicates, presumably, conduction from such corresponding points to a single brain region. i Watt (23) subjects the recent work of Jaensch, Kohler, Révész ‘ and others! to a careful analysis, and attempts to bring their : results into accord with his own theory of the attributes of sound as 1 Cf. Hearing, the BULLETIN, 1914, 96-105. 161 162 ROBERT MORRIS OGDEN set forth in a previous article.2 “Pitch” he regards as an attribute of order. It is essentially what Révész calls “quality,” though not confined to the limits of an octave as Révész proposes. What Révész calls “Hohe” is for Watt “volume.” ‘We have then to suppose that the ear provides us with a single series of orders; pitch is judged by the most prominent order; interval by the ‘form’ constituted by the prominent orders; volume by the line or mass of orders stimulated at all; pitches and intervals can therefore be compared and fixed to some extent by means of volumes alone.” Neither pitch nor volume as such are spatial. “They are simply systemic, 1. ¢., such orders and such continuousness as will with sufficient variation of order constitute a sensory system.” Jaensch’s results regarding the transition from tone through vowel to noise are accepted, but no reason is found for the assumption of a specific noise sense, older in the race than the sense of tone. Variation in definiteness of pitch, due to increase in number of different vibration frequencies is held to induce this change in the sound. As for the definite location of vowels in the pitch series, it is suggested “that the mouth for some reason or other chooses to form such a cavity for some one vowel that it gives a certain average tone, and that the other vowel sounds are chosen, owing to the otherwise and already existing octave relationship, in relation to this primary vowel.” The author proceeds to sketch a theory of hearing on the principle of stimulations which excite regions rather than isolated fibers of the basilar membrane. It is argued that primitive hearing is sensible only to high tones produced from the region at the base of the cochlea. The point of maximal stimulation in the portion of the membrane which is excited is responsible for the pitch of a sound. ‘This is clearly defined only in the case of simple pendular- formed stimuli, or such complexes as involve simple relations between the regions stimulated. Thus the octave relationship is derived from coincidence of volume. The extent of the membrane aroused by a higher tone always coincides with a portion of the extent aroused by a lower tone, and in the case of the octave the extent of the latter will be just twice that of the former. Low tones are prominent in chords because the maximum of the lowest tone always extends beyond the maxima of the higher tones present. Tones, therefore, correspond to regular systems of sound; noises 2 Cf. “The Elements of Experience and their Integration: or Modalism,” Brit. J. of Psychol., 1911, 4, 127-204. HEARING 163 to irregular systems. The pitch of noise is thus obscured. Dis- tance is a primitive mode; interval a more refined musical mode. Simultaneous and successive intervals differ in that pitches only can be analyzed in simultaneous intervals, whereas in successive intervals pitch, intensity, and volume all stand out clearly. For this reason, as von Maltzew has pointed out, descending and ascending intervals of the same notes are not apprehended alike. Meyer (8) referring to Révész’s distinction of “pitch” and “quality,” calls attention to his own differentiation of attributes made public in 1898, and remarks that the suggestion came to him from Stumpf, who quoted still earlier psychologists. The question of priority is thus inconsiderable, yet the importance of an un- ambiguous terminology is very great. Meyer had previously used the terms “quality” and “pitch” in direct opposition to Révész’s usage. It is now proposed, in the interest of uniformity, that “vocality”’ be used for the attribute of mellowness and shrillness, height or volume, while “tonality” be adopted to express the qualitative pitch distinction of Révész. Valentine (19) reports investigations on the appreciation of musical intervals. His subjects numbered 146 adults and 271 children. The intervals were played upon a piano and the judg- ments recorded immediately after the intervals had been sounded. The order of pleasingness indicated by the average of adult reports was as follows: major third, minor third, octave, major sixth, minor sixth, fourth, tritone, fifth, major second, minor seventh, major seventh and minor second. The last four were judged displeasing. One hundred and ninety-five school children between the ages of six and fourteen indicated no special preferences before the age of nine. At twelve and thirteen, however, their average order was remarkably like that of the adults. There was no appreciable difference in the preferences of the more and less intelligent, nor any correlation found between general ability and certain simple tests of musical capacity. Seventy-six girls of a preparatory school where music was a part of the curriculum showed aversion to discords at the ages of seven and eight, and at nine the order of preference was similar to that of the adults. Two interesting by-products of this investigation may be noted, although under the conditions of experimentation employed the results can hardly be regarded as established. It appeared that nine out of twelve adults, specially tested, found the higher note of an interval to determine its pitch rather than the lower note, as is usually assumed to be the case. tee: rs ae °° ee ©2808 oom sare - <_oemenn we Sibi as AOR LS ge : . : 4 1 4 : 164 ROBERT MORRIS OGDEN The second result was the detection of more frequent judgments of “sad” and “plaintive” attaching to the major third and sixth than to the minor third and sixth. In a subsequent investigation {20) Valentine contrasted the results of comparing pairs of intervals with judgments of single intervals. The piano was again used with five musical observers. The method of comparison gave different results from that with single intervals. The general esthetic value of judgments by the method of comparison seemed less. In the course of the experi- ments three of the observers showed a striking change in their appreciation of discords, these tending to become more pleasing. The change sometimes occurred after a few seconds. The author suggests a kind of adaptation to discords comparable, perhaps, to what takes place in the development of music. This lends support to the theory suggested by C. S. Myers*® that the perception of con- sonance and dissonance is dependent, partly at least, upon frequent association. Moore (10) defends this thesis as to the genesis of consonance. His experiments dealt chiefly with the fifth, major third, major and minor seventh produced on a reed organ of tem- pered intonation. After periods of adaptation to the sevenths, through prolongation and repetition of such an interval, his nine observers indicated marked differences in their judgments of con- sonance when comparing the four intervals. The major third was found to lose rapidly, while the minor seventh gained rapidly in consonance. The major seventh also gained, though less rapidly, while the fifth maintained a constant level. It is concluded that the greatest pleasure in intervals is attained with a bare consonance. With greater degrees of consonance an affective decline is noted, but this is followed by a certain rise when the stable unitary effects of the fifth and octave are reached. The minor seventh is regarded as nearest the consonant region, while the major third, after adap- tation, is found to have passed its zenith of interest. The fifth re- tains its relative consonance because of its greater stability. Mar- age (7) contributes also to our knowledge of the effects of habitu- ation. In comparing musical pieces of the 16th and 17th centuries when performed successively upon the piano and upon instruments of the epoch, clavecin, clavichord, lute and viol, his numerous ob- servers reported at first that the metallic tones of the clavecin 3 Cf. Text-Book of Experimental Psychology, 2d ed., p. 55. Anearlier reference and more complete statement is found in Brit. J. of Psychol., 1905, 1, 315-316. An inde- pendent sketch for such a theory is given by Ogden, the BuLLETIN, 1909, 6, 297-393- HEARING * 165 were disagreeable, but speedily they became endurable and finally were regarded as “‘possédant certains qualités.”” The ear was found to accommodate itself very quickly. After the first séance the pianist complained that his instrument must have been changed, since, in comparison with the primitive instruments, it no longer seemed to give harmonious effects. Myers (11), to some extent in collaboration with Valentine, has given a detailed analysis of the introspections of twenty-nine sub- jects of the two sexes relative to their attitudes towards single tones, bichords and pairs of bichords. The tones were produced by ten tuning forks varying in vibration from 400 to 1,300 per second. In line with the analyses of Bullough on color‘ the author distin- guishes four aspects of attitude: (1) Intra-subjective (cognitive, physiological, emotional, and conative). (2) Objective (appre- ciation of the sound as having a meaning or use, and as in relation to the subject’s standard of purity). (3) Character (anthropomorphic suggestions). (4) Associative (with instruments, music, or sur- roundings, and symbolic suggestions). Among the results indi- cated it may be noted that the objective aspect appears to increase with judgments of preference, and to be responsible for instances of indifferent appreciation and impossibility of making comparison. In a volume of studies from the University of lowa, the editor has assembled nine papers, eight of which fall within our field. The first paper (15) is Seashore’s description of his tonoscope in its improved form. ‘The instrument affords a means of reading directly the pitch of a tone sung, spoken or played. An outline of the various types of problem which it is adapted to solve is also given. Miles (9), using the instrument with 213 observers, men and women, has tested the accuracy of the human voice in simple pitch singing. The voice is found to be about equally accurate in terms of vibra- tions at all points within its range, therefore, the high tones are sung relatively more exactly than the low tones. A strong standard tone was reproduced as decidedly lower than a weak standard tone. The voice could most easily reproduce the pitch of tones richintimbre. Vowel quality in a tone was found to affect accuracy of pitch, the i being reproduced highest, the o lowest and the a between. Men and women sang with equal accuracy within their ranges. With women the general tendency was to sing sharp. The average error was 1.5 v.d. for men at the range of 128 v.d., and the same for women at the range of 256 v.d. The average *Cf. Brit. J. of Psychol., 1908, 2, 406-463. oy SEE EL LER EOS LR © meee = clita eel . 4 4 wees denen wa caus = ae at is t= vi sn ae . 166 ROBERT MORRIS OGDEN minimal producible change of voice for men, at the above mentioned range, was 5.5 v.d., and for women, at the octave higher, 3.5 v.d. Smith’s investigation (16) indicates that training in pitch discrimination is very rapid. The approximate physiological threshold was reached at a sitting of less than an hour in more than half the cases of adults and children bright enough to understand the test. The physiological limit was always below the conven- tional threshold (75 per cent. of right cases), the latter being indi- cated as 1 v.d. and the former as .25 v.d. Vance (21), repeating some unpublished experiments of Misao Imai, done in the Iowa laboratory, finds the limit of tonality lowered to 13 and 12 v.d. with forks carrying disks of 10 cm. diameter to increase the area of vibration. With a selected group of fifty observers Vance (22) has also tested variations in pitch discrimination at different levels between 64 and 2,048 v.d. The keenest discrimination was found at 128 and 256 v.d. There was slight evidence of tonal gaps, the grosser irregularities disappearing with more extended observations. The women made more accurate judgments when the second tone was higher, and surpassed the men at every level, the variation being greatest at the extremes. Anderson (1) with four trained observers found the optimal duration of tones for comparison to be one second for the first and one-half second for the second. Short intervals between the tones were better than long. No effect was noted from varying the direction of sound. The accuracy of judgments proved as great under ordinary laboratory conditions as when made within a dark, sound-proof room. Individual tendencies were noted to judge the second tone too high or too low, but no general tendency was detected for the group. Stewart (17) demonstrated individual tendencies to judge weak tones low, and strong tones high; also the reverse. Hancock (4), testing sounds in the region of 128 v.d., found differences in intensity to occasion an illusion of pitch, constant in direction, though variable in amount—a loud sound being judged lower than a faint sound of the same pitch. The average illusion was about 6 v.d. At 512 v.d. a tendency was still to be found, but varied to judgments of higher as well as lower, while at 1,024 v.d. the effect was less disturbing. Sylvester (18), testing the Stern tone variator by the tonoscope, found its greatest accuracy to be attained with 4 gm. pressure and 1.9 mm. mouth- piece gap, but it does not prove to be an instrument for securing accuracy of pitch and interval, since its variations may be from 1.5 v.d. to 10.1 v.d. from their settings. HEARING 167 Rupp’s article (14) discusses the chief points to be considered in testing musical capacity. A more detailed and exact discussion of methods is promised in a second paper. Among the problems here considered are the general methods for determining the cognition of tones, determinations of span, thresholds, absolute pitch and timbre. Differential sensitivity, interval sensitivity, cognition of simultaneous intervals, melody, harmony, “takt”’ and rhythm, and the analysis of sounds are also considered at some length. Balz (2) “is convinced that at bottom music (and all the other arts, for that matter) rests upon the exploitation of that sort of exciting agency which is the ‘natural’ innately appropriate, and adequate stimulus for the calling forth of an emotion through the excitation of the sense-organs.” Thus, specific differences in musical stimuli occasion specific musical emotions. Pieces of music which resemble one another in emotional value will resemble one another in structure. Illustrations are adduced to show that our innate organism responds to certain musical motives, and that our experience develops our sense of emotional reaction. No definite analysis of the structure of the music, or the nature of the corre- sponding emotions is attempted. Ter Kuile (5) finds that the ratios of vibration frequency of two or more tones indicates their rank in the scale of consonance when one applies the following formula, where a, 8, y, etc., represent the I ratio numbers and p the number of tones in the chord: —;>—————— Va-B-y: as Upon reduction the result varies from 1, in the case of the unisone, downwards. The octave gives 0.71, the fifth, 0.41, the fourth, 0.29, etc. The series closely approximates the order usually attached to the degrees of consonance. The author would appear to regard this as of physiological significance, the explanation, however, is not quite apparent to the reviewer. Benjamins (3), experimenting with the Kundt dust figures, has found variations in the chief partial which correspond to different vowels sung into the tube. When u, 0, a, were sung on different notes the partial was found to descend as the pitch of the note rose, but it remained lowest for u and highest for a. Marked differences were noted in the results of an adult tenor voice, and the voice of a girl of eleven years. For the former, a was between 412 and 1,031 v.d., 0, between 369 and 611 v.d. and u between 288 and 402 v.d. For the little girl, a was between 916 and 1,100 v.d., 0, between 458 and 916 v.d. and u at 388 v.d. Other vowel sounds are also reported and we may note a LOEB OLD EEE OETA SOS a ee i ME 5 e% oer — " oe ee few oe cee 168 ROBERT MORRIS OGDEN the registration of ¢ between 397 and 634 v.d. The author con- cludes that the mouth cavity changes its form as the pitch of the tone being sung is changed. The vowel clang is therefore not independent of the pitch of the voice, although change in pitch may alter the character of the vowel. Peterson (12), replying to a criticism of Cl. Schaefer, maintains that their views as to the origin of subjective combination tones are not essentially different. All combination tones, subjective and objective, depend upon periodicities external to the sensory end- organs of hearing. Helmholtz’s belief that they are located in the middle ear has been found erroneous, yet the same principle em- ployed by him accounts for their existence in the waters of the cochlea. Raman (13) appears able to demonstrate a wide range of vibrations of the combinational variety by recording photo- graphically the vibrations of a string suspended between the prongs of two tuning forks. The summational vibrations were found to be more frequent than the differential. Among those demonstrated, occur vibrations corresponding to the first difference tone and the simple summation tone. No reference is made to any attempt at demonstrating objectivity of combination tones, and the physical effect of the string which records these additional vibrations is not specifically made clear. Wood (24) gives in brief compass a clear and interesting discussion of the physical basis of music. As is the case with most physicists, he holds more closely to the Helmholtz theories than is entirely warranted by the psychologist’s results. Despite this limitation, his little volume may be found helpful to students in the study of audition. REFERENCES . Anperson, D. A. The Duration of Tones, the Time Interval, the Direction of Sound, Darkness and Quiet, and the Order of Stimuli in Pitch Discrimination. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 150-156. 2. Bauz, A. Music and Emotion. J. of Philos., Psychol., €c., 1914, 11, 236-244. . Benyamins, C. E. Ueber den Hauptton des gesungenen oder laut gesprochenen Vokalklanges. Pruiiicers Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol., 1913, 154, 515-551; 1914, 155, 436-442. . Hancock, C. The Effect of Intensity of Sound upon the Pitch of Low Tones. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 161-165. . Kure, T. E. ter, Konsonanz und einfaches Zahlenverhaltnis. Priiicers Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol., 1914, 159, 35-50. . LreBerMany, P. v. & Révész,G. Die binaurale Tonmischung. Zsch. f. Psychol, 1914, 69, 234-255. . Marace, —. Sensibilité de l’oreille physiologique pour certains sons musicaux, C. r. acad. d. sci., 1914, 158, 1438-1440. AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA—EXPERIMENTAL 169 . Meyer, M. Vorschlage zur akustischen Terminologie. Zsch. f. Psychol., 1914, 68, 115-123. . Mites, W. R. Accuracy of the Voice in Simple Pitch Singing. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 13-66. . Moore, H. T. The Genetic Aspect of Consonance and Dissonance. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 17, No. 73. Pp. 80. . Myers, C. S. and Vatentine, C.W. A Study in the Individual Differences of Attitude towards Tone. Brit. J. of Psychol., 1914, 7, 68-111. . Peterson, J. Nochmals eine Bemerkung iiber den Ursprung subjektiver Kom- binationsténe. Ann. d. Physik, 1914, 43, 1111-1116. . Raman, C. V. On the Maintenance of Combinational Vibrations by two Simple Harmonic Forces. Phys. Rev., 1915, 5, 1-20. . Rupp, H. Ueber die Priifung musikalischer Fahigkeiten. I. Teil. Zsch. f. angew. Psychol., 1914, 9, 1-76. . Seasuore, C. E. The Tonoscope. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 1-12. . SmitH, F.O. The Effect of Training in Pitch Discrimination. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 67-103. . Stewart, R. M. The Effect of Intensity and Order on the Apparent Pitch of Tones in the Middle Range. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 157-160. . Sytvester, R.H. Some Standardizing Tests on Stern’s Tone Variator. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 173-177. . Vatentine, C. W. The Aesthetic Appreciation of Musical Intervals among School Children and Adults. Brit. J. of Psychol., 1913, 6, 190-216. . VaLentinE, C. W. The Method of Comparison in Experiments with Musical Intervals and the Effect of Practice on the Appreciation of Discords. Brit. /. of Psychol., 1914, 7, 118-135. . Vance, T. F. The Lower Limit of Tonality. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 104-114. . Vance,T.F. Variation in Pitch Discrimination within the Tonal Range. Psychol. Monog., 1914, 16, No. 69, 115-149. . Watt, H. J. Psychological Analysis and Theory of Hearing. Brit. J. of Psychol, 1914, 7, I-43. : . Woon, A. The Physical Basis of Music. New York: Putnam, 1913. Pp. iv+163. con eS Se meee em eee oe ow - AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA—EXPERIMENTAL BY JOHN F. SHEPARD + & SR ese ee See eee se we wee cewen oe cae _ University of Michigan Rose (9) reports the results of experiments by means of the dynamograph, on the influence of disagreeable sensory stimuli upon the motor effect of voluntary acts. Series of 6 to 36 efforts were made, giving every other three with or without a disagreeable taste. Results were taken with four sorts of preparation of atten- tion on the part of the subject: (1) simple, without special directions except to pull as much as possible; (2) sensory, the subject’s ce er nt at al etn 170 JOHN F. SHEPARD attention is mainly on the signal and he is directed to react only when the signal is heard clearly; (3) motor, the idea of the move- ment is to be especially held in mind, with the thought of reacting immediately after the signal; (4) muscular, as (3), but with the development of strain in the muscles which are to be used. The latent time between the signal and the beginning of the reaction, the length of the rise of the curve, the total length of the act, and the height of the pull were measured. The introspections of the subjects indicated that the sensory disagreeableness caused an increase in the motor impulse. Some of the subjects found the disagreeable stimulus to be exciting introspectively; the others found no such effect, but were quite passive toward it. They also observed that the type of preparation of attention influenced the motor effect. In most cases, weak, medium, and strong disagree- ableness caused a decrease in the latent time of the reaction. The more actively excitable subjects showed a stronger effect than the more passive ones. Sensory disagreeableness of all degrees and witn all sorts of preparation of attention gave an increase in the height of the thrust, the more so the stronger the disagreeableness. Moderate to strong disagreeableness with each sort of preparation of attention showed a shortening of the period of rise of the curve when the subject was of the more active type, but showed lengthen- ing of the rise when the subject was of the passive type. The total length of the act was decreased by the disagreeableness with simple preparation of attention and in the active type of subjects with all other preparations; it was increased with sensory, motor, and muscular preparations with the passive type of subjects. Alto- gether, sensory disagreeableness of all degrees and with all sorts of preparation of attention caused an increase in the motor effects of a voluntary act. Leschke (6) has again brought together in tabular form the results of various investigators concerning the correlation of feeling and physiological processes. The table indicates a high degree of agreement among the different writers as to what organic changes accompany each type of mental condition. It seems to the reviewer that there are several more or less erroneous interpretations of the literature where a different report would interfere somewhat with the unanimity of results; but we need now to find just where we stand in the study of this question, and Leschke attempts to do it. Miss Washburn and her students (3) suggest a measure of the tendency to strong affective reactions, whether of pleasantness or AFFECTIVE PHENOMEN A—EXPERIMENTAL 171 unpleasantness. The number of indifferent judgments in a series is divided by the number of very pleasant judgments plus the number of very unpleasant judgments. Colors cause a strong affective reaction in more observers than articulate sounds do. There appears to be a tendency for observers who are very sensitive or very indifferent to one kind of material to have the same attitude toward the other kind, but this rule has many exceptions. Direct verbal suggestion (7) regarding the pleasantness or unpleasantness of a color is usually found to have a positive effect upon the judgments. With a few observers there was a much less decided negative effect. It requires (8) more time to reach a judgment of pleasant or unpleasant if the degree of feeling is moderate than if it is extreme, and it requires still more time to reach a judgment of indifference. There is no difference between judgments of pleasantness and unpleasantness of a given degree. In the case of subjects who were without knowledge of the experimental method, the feeling character of a color was found (1) to be influenced by affective contrast with a decidedly pleasant or unpleasant color experienced immediately before. Feleky (5) obtained a number of photographs of the same individual. Each was taken as the subject endeavored to portray a given emotion. The photographs were presented to one hundred persons together with a list of names of emotions. Each person was asked to select the name of the emotion expressed in each picture. Sufficient uniformity was shown to make the method promise valuable results in the study of emotional expression. Coover (4) studied the possible justification for the belief in “the feeling of being stared at.” Ten students who held such belief acted as subjects. The belief was shown to be groundless. The explanation of the “feeling,” was found in nervousness, catching someone staring whose attention had been attracted by the nervousness, attributing objective validity to subjective im- pressions of imagery, kinesthetic sensations, and impulses. According to Benussi (2), the ratio of duration of inspiration to duration of expiration is less before making a false statement than afterward and is greater before making a true statement than afterward. REFERENCES i. Bacon, M. M., Roop, E. A., & Wasupurn, M.F. A Study of Affective Contrast. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1914, 25, 290-293. 2 we wee Cowen ee ee PEERS PS 222! s Few es Sf meer mea es ee oe 172 H. N. GARDINER . Benuss1, V. Die Atmungssymptome der Liige. Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol., 1914, 31, 244-273. . Crarx, H., Quacxensusn, N., & Wasnspurn, M. F. A Suggested Coefficient of Affective Sensitiveness. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1913, 24, 583-585. . Coover, J. E. “The Feeling of Being Stared at”’—Experimental. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1913, 24, 570-575. . Ferexy, A. M. The Expression of the Emotions. Psychol. Reo., 1914, 21, 33-41. . Lescuxe, E. Die Ergebnisse und die Fehlerquellen der bisherigen Untersuchungen iiber die kérperlichen Begleiterscheinungen seelischer Vorgange. Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol., 1914, 31, 27-37. . Pometson, I., & Wasupurn, M.F. The Effect of Verbal Suggestion on Judgments of the Affective Value of Colors. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1913, 24, 267-269. . Porrer, H. M., Tutrie, R., & Wasusurn, M. F. The Speed of Affective Judg- ments. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1914, 25, 288-290. . Rost, H. Der Einfluss der Unlustgefiihle auf den motorischen Effekt der Willens- handlungen. Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol., 1913, 28, 94-181. AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA—DESCRIPTIVE AND THEORETICAL BY H. N. GARDINER Smith College Two writers treat generally of “feeling” and “the feelings.” Smith (13) wants to know what is the “substrate” which “has” the attributes pleasant, unpleasant, etc. After reviewing, criticiz- ing, combining and variously interpreting current theories, he concludes that it is “‘a spiritual act or self-position,” a character which it shares with cognition and conation. Hence it must be “deduced” from the notion of spiritual life or activity. The result of the analysis of this notion is that all experience, in propor- tion to its perfection, is feeling and, therefore, pleasure. Pain, or non-feeling, is real only as an element in what as a whole is pleasure. A more fruitful method is followed by Miller-Freienfels (8), the genetic-biologic. According to him psychical phenomena are modifications and specifications of an originally undifferentiated consciousness, appearing in us as “organic consciousness.” Sensa- tions proper are biologically explicable developments towards the objective side, that of localization, the feelings are developments of the subjective side. They are not, however, sharply divided from cognitive activities, into which, indeed, they enter as constituents —a point repeatedly emphasized—nor from conative, where the distinction is one of relative passivity and activity, and still less AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA—DESCRIPTIVE AND THEORETICAL 173 from organic consciousness. Feelings are psychic entities, not mere attributes, are specific in character and are indefinitely various. There are, ¢. g., innumerable kinds of feelings classed under the categories of pleasure and displeasure; there is no pleasure or dis- pleasure “an sich.” Notable among the contributions of recent years to the psy- chology of the affective life is the work of Shand (11), whose theory of the sentiments, originally propounded some twenty years ago in Mind and since accepted, in whole or in part, by Stout, Wester- marck and W. McDougall, among others, is here developed to establish the foundations of a science of character. The problem is conceived as essentially dynamical. The emotions are forces connected with instincts. Their analysis into sensations and feel- ings having value as reflecting bodily changes is subordinate to the tracing of their tendencies, at first their biological, later their value for the higher ends of character. A fundamental conception in the author’s treatment is that of system. As in the body there are certain greater and certain lesser systems, so in the character. Here there are three orders of such systems: (1) The simplest—the impulses, each including an instinctive or other tendency; (2) the appetites and emotions, including some of the former tendencies; and (3) the most complex—the sentiments, including some of both the preceding systems. The organic laws of character are those of our instincts, emotions and sentiments, and of such laws the author formulates 144. We are reminded of Spinoza, but the method here is entirely different, not deductive, but empirical; the fundamental conceptions are taken as working hypotheses and the conclusions, instead of being considered final, are regarded as always probably in some measure false. This is not the place to refer to the details of an extensive treatise acute in observation, subtle in argument and rich in literary illustration, but the attention of those interested may well be called to the excellent chapter on the temperaments, which are treated from the point of view that a man’s temperament is determined by the “temper” of his emo- tions, 7. ¢., by the way in which his emotions are felt and manifested. In another direction Miiller-Freienfels (9) traces the influence of specific types of emotion and emotional dispositions, as they pre- dominate in individuals and in societies at different periods and stages of civilization, on religion, literature, ast and philosophy. In showing the contribution made by each type—emotions of depressed and heightened self-feeling and of the aggressive and ee ites * ewes eee oe to snes SRS EL SPCL22 wes Fare we teaser me 2S 268 a ss = es . ” 174 H. N. GARDINER sympathetic social instincts, as well as emotions of the sexual life— the paper is in part a protest against the Freudian tendency to attribute creative functions solely to the erotic impulse. Ribot (10), while also criticizing the attempt to explain everything by the sexual instinct, ascribes to psycho-analysis credit for having thrown light on the processes of affective logic, particularly in its lower forms, and on the processes of creative imagination in its study of dreams. He himself proposes the hypothesis that creative imagina- tion is a form of the transformation of energy and says that this should find favor with the analysts, who ascribe the same origin to creative imagination as to physical procreation. The amorous sentiment itself is examined by Kostyleff (4, 5). Starting with the view that the synthetic image, objectively a bundle of reflexes, which governs the sentiment, may be wholly or partially unconscious, he concludes, after reviewing recent cases of general, diffuse erotism reported by the Freudians, that in normal love the “erotic complex” is composed of fragmentary and delicate reflexes associated with a diffuse reaction, and accordingly un- conscious. Regarding the formation of the erotic complex he takes sharp issue, in a second article, with the Freudian account of it as derived from infantile erotism centered, ¢. g., on the mother, and ascribes it rather to isolated reflexes of a perceptive or emotional order. Balz (1), basing his evidence on general musical experience, seeks to show that differences in the emotional reactions of the trained musical auditor are correlated with specific differences in the various complexes of the air-vibrations, regard being had, fundamentally, to innate organization and, secondarily, to familiari- zation. Dwelshauvers (2) contends that the sentiment of art, at least in its highest forms, and the sentiment of religion spring from the same movement of sympathy between what is spiritual in ourselves and what is spiritual in the universe as a whole. Siméon (12) discusses the timely subject of patriotism. He finds the usual explanations insufficient and holds that the content of this sentiment is nothing but “the will of a state, of a system of laws” guaranteeing a definite political, social and religious régime, actual or ideal. Its objects are institutions and ideas connected with the territory, not the territory itself. Hall (3) gives a comprehensive study of fears, a “synthetic” study, it is called, because aiming to correlate all the chief lines of investigation of the subject, “genetic,” because of its explanatory principles. Fear is defined, in language all too characteristic, as “a protensive or futuristic attitude or orientation AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA—DESCRIPTIVE AND THEORETICAL 175 toward a pejoristic state.” As against Freud, who interprets its generic form as rooted in sex, its summum genus is said to be an inability to cope with life. A list of 136 phobias is drawn up, all duly labeled with Greek names, but the material discussed in detail is grouped under ten heads, one being the polyhyphenated “Rabdo-ballisto-aichuro-acro-merintho-phobias.” A vast array of data is brought under survey. The genetic principle is ingeniously applied, being sufficiently plastic to cover symptoms regarded as grotesque variants and intensifications of phylogenetic originals and, again, motor patterns which represent mere scars of ancient fears and which, when called into action, evoke but a faint phos- phorescence of the old primordial feeling. The explanations, how- ever, are usually convincing and at worst plausible. At times auda- cious, as when, ¢. g., referring the sense of hovering to pelasgic life and that of falling to arboreal, the author on occasion shows com- mendable caution. Thus, in spite of the evidence which points to an ophidian Anlage, which, however, need not be a specific type of imagery, as the basis for the common attitude toward snakes, he confesses that there is something here that we do not know, and a similar hypothesis with regard to an inherited Anlage to account for the frequent aversion to house-cats he describes as a fides querens demonstrationem. Incidentally on several occasions he pays his respects to the James-Lange theory; it may hold, he says, for the race, but not for the individual, psychic fears having made the mechanisms. Le Savoureux (6) in an essay on ennui criticizes the view of Tardieu that its primary cause is physical or mental exhaustion and contends that it and fatigue are not only different, but opposed. Its essence is found in progressively arrested ten- dencies which make their action felt while themselves remaining latent. It is the equivalent in the moral realm of the vague feeling of need in the physiological. On the historical side Titchener (14), starting from a remark of F. M. Urban’s that Cournot’s speaking of “sensations” of pain in an essay published in 1851 sounds quite modern, since most writers of his time would have called them “feelings,” cites passages from French authors of various schools from Malebranche down to Taine and Rabier which show that sensation and sentiment were not sharply discriminated and that Cournot himself in the essay in question had no settled terminology. The same writer (15) quotes numerous passages from French and German authors which antici- pate in certain respects the James-Lange theory of emotion, is ngs Lars wu wee om me ee = PRADA LBA Lee NO Pemeserme SF eee - 176 H. N. GARDINER surprised that James makes no reference to his predecessors and regards his acceptance of the complete novelty of his theory as something of a curiosity. In reply it may be said that none of the writers cited express James’s theory as he first stated it. Finally, Limentani (7), in the first book published in Italian on the moral theory of Adam Smith, gives a good exposition of that writer’s doctrine of sympathy, connecting it with the fuller account given by Hume, which it presupposes, and pointing out that for Smith sympathy is not so much a special emotion as the echo in the obser- ver of every emotion in the one observed. REFERENCES . Baz, A. Music and Emotion. J. of Phil., Psychol., €c., 1914, 11, 236-244. . Dwexsnauvers, G. Du sentiment religieux dans ses rapports avec l’art. Reo. de mét. et de mor., 1914, 22, 500-516. . Hatt, G.S. A Synthetic Genetic Study of Fear. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1914, 25, 149-200, 321-392. . Kostyterr, N. Contribution a l’étude du sentiment amoureux. Rev. phil., 1914, 77, 506-526. . Kostyterr, N. Sur la formation du complexus érotique dans le sentiment a- moureux. Rev. phil., 1915, 79, 159-179. . Le Savoureux, H. L’ennui normale et l’ennui morbide. J. de psychol. norm. et path., 1914, 11, 131-148. . Lowentani, L. La morale della simpatia. Genova: Formiggini, 1914. Pp. xvi-260. . Mitver-Frerenrers, R. Zur Begriffsbestimmung und Analyse der Gefihle. Zsch. f. Psychol., 1914, 68, 237-280. . Miurer-Frerenrets, R. Individuelle Verschiedenheiten des Affektlebens und ihre Wirkung im religidsen, kiinstlerischen und philosophischen Leben. Zasch. f. angew. Psychol., 1914, 9, 77-131. . Rrsot,T. La logique affective et la psycho-analyse. Rev. phil., 1914, 78, 144-161. . SHanp, A. F. The Foundations of Character. London: Macmillan, 1914. Pp. xxxi+532. . Srmféon, G. Le sentiment patriotique. Reo. de mét. et de mor., 1914, 22, 548-568. . Smitu, J. A. On Feeling. Proc. Aristot. Soc., 1913-1914, 14, 49-75. . Trrcnener, E. B. An Historical Note on the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. Amer. J. of Psychol., 1914, 25, 427-447. . Trrcnener, E. B. A Note on Sensation and Sentiment. Amer. J. of Psychol. 1914, 25, 301-307. ATTENTION ATTENTION BY W. B. PILLSBURY University of Michigan Nayrac (2) presents a new edition of his exposé of attention, first published in 1906. The main body of the work is unchanged. Two new sections are added, one on the technique of attention, which describes the usual methods of testing attention, the other gives a brief description of a special course of discipline for children, defective in capacity for attention. In addition many references to later work are introduced and the bibliography is brought down to date. Altogether the second edition is some ten pages longer than the first. The work as a whole provides a summary of the work that has been done upon attention in practically all of its aspects. Chapters are devoted to the physiology of attention, its psychology, to the physiological and psychological pathology, and to the education of attention together with a very brief historical introduction and a brief conclusion. Attention is defined and eulogized as “a general phenomenon, an active mechanism which is characterized by the voluntary or involuntary concentration of our activity, mental and physical, to the advantage of an idea or group of ideas”’ rather than explained. Nevertheless the author gathers together a large amount of data bearing particularly upon the physiological and pathological phases of attention. Most of the symptoms of nervous and mental diseases are referred to dis- turbances of attention in its different stages of disaggregation. In the final chapter on education most emphasis is put upon habit, and systems are provided that shall deal both with the physical basis as well as give mental drill. It should be added that the work was awarded the Saintour prize of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1905 and has an introduction by Ribot, a sufficient guarantee of its importance. Woodrow (3) offers an elaborate investigation of the effect of distraction upon attention. Starting with the familiar proposition that attention may best be measured by determining its breaking force, he replaces the term distraction for his purposes by detraction and attempts to measure the effect of unfavorable conditions upon the strength of attention, using the reaction time as the prime measure of the degree of attention. The first detractor measured is variation in the interval between warning signal and stimulus. © eee e6 erwes oe ee wt © 2M Ceenne eres ees seew ee Tet mer ee mea ane «eee ee - 178 W. B. PILLSBURY He finds that there is a quickening of reaction with increase in interval up to two seconds and a regular decrease in quickness from two seconds to 24 seconds provided the interval be increased regu- larly. If the intervals be given in irregular order the average re- action time is longer than the average for any interval used in the regular series. In the second and third portions he extends the method to determine the varying degree in which the variation in the interval affects different unfavorable influences. He finds that the reaction times to faint lights and to slight changes in the stimulus are increased much more by the unfavorable intervals than are those to more intense lights and greater changes. From this he formulates the law that “the absolute detraction effect of a given detractor of attention varies inversely with the degree of attention upon which the detractor acts.” From his results he conjectures that the difference between the simple reaction time with a constant two second warning interval and a reaction with an irregular interval between the warning and the stimulus may be used as an inverse measure of attention. He confirms the conjecture by showing that the ordinary distractions are registered by this index, and that it measures the increase of attention with age. He then applies the measure to determine whether practice has any effect upon attention and reaches a negative conclusion. Neither trained nor untrained subjects show either increase or decrease of attention with practice. Cramaussel (1) reports observations taken on the respiration and pulse of an infant between seven and ten months. The usual changes are found or assumed; increase in pulse rate at the begin- ning, a slowing at the end of the attentive period, accompanied by vaso-motor disturbances. Respiration is usually checked both in rate and in amplitude. The changes are more sudden and last longer when the attention is of an affective character, are more prolonged but less striking in intellectual attention. i sSAIy ihe Reng A esac Se pa ea REFERENCES 1. CramaussEL, E. L’attention chez un petit enfant. Année psychol., 1914, 20, 126-139. 2. Nayrac, J. P. Physiologie et psychologie de I’ attention, 2 ed. Paris, F. Alcan, 1914, Pp. xii+238. 3. Wooprow, H. The Measurement of Attention. Psychol. Momog., 1914, 17- No. 76. Pp. 158. CORRELATION CORRELATION BY JAMES BURT MINER The University of Minnesota The explanations of correlation still center around the question whether a common “general” factor or “specific” factors common to various processes are most to be emphasized. Spearman and Hart (24) add another fundamental paper toward their demonstra- tion of the importance. of the general factor, the efficiency of the entire cortex. New and decidedly original methods for testing their hypothesis are devised. These involve a “coefficient of depreciation,” which measures the difference between the average record of groups of abnormal and normal individuals for the same test. According to their theory this depreciation is generally due to a decrease in the general factor, so that the order of merit of a series of different tests as to their efficiency in showing this deprecia- tion should give a correlation of 1.00 with their rank as measures of the general factor (shown by the size of new “coefficients of satura- tion”). With certain allowances the correspondence between these two orders of merit for 19 tests is found to be .87. Moreover, the ranking of the tests in the order which they show the general factor with a group of insane cases should correlate closely with the same ranking for a group of the sane. This correlation is found to be .73. Accepting de Sanctis’s suggestion Spearman (43) prefers to call his explanation of correlation the “theory of two factors,” general and special. Simpson’s coefficients of correlation between mental abilities are tested by the criterion which he and Hart previously set forth in their paper on “General Ability.”” This demands a correlation of 1.00 between any pair of columns of coefficients, provided that the correlations are to be explained entirely by the general factor. With 23 pairs of columns he finds a corrected correlation of .86. In showing this, however, it must be remem- bered that he rejects 55 other possible pairs of columns as being too much affected by sampling errors. New coefficients provided by the work of Wyatt, Abelson and Webb are also found to conform to this same criterion. One of Simpson’s 91 coefficients, that between two cancellation tests, he finds to be too large to be explained by the general factor alone, and four others between the three memory tests and the two discrimination tests are probably explained in part by the specific factors common to these tests. 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